History: According to Augustine

Sitting on my nightstand is a book which is titled “Daily Dose of History”. Each page in this book has inserted a specific historical event, confined to just a few paragraphs. The purpose of each of these pages is to provide the reader with a quick synopsis of the historical event being discussed, and then provide a quick commentary on why the historical event is important in the grand scheme of things. I have thoroughly enjoyed this little book for two reasons. Firstly, when I’m sitting in bed twiddling my thumbs I can reach for it and, within the span of a few minutes, further expand my knowledge of world history. Secondly, and most importantly, I have enjoyed it because on its very title page is a small quote which has had a large impact on my understanding of history: “Any fool can make history, but it takes a genius to write it.[1]” As I had mentioned earlier, this book desires to present not only the facts of history, but also the purpose of history.

            The above quote can be broken up into two observations about history. Firstly, “any fool can make history” reminds us that history does encompass all things. All things in motion, since the beginning, are encompassed in the definition of history. It is a mixture of the good and the bad, the beautiful and the ugly, the serene and the chaotic. Secondly, “but it takes a genius to write it” reminds us that it is an acknowledgement of humans that history does have a purpose, although such purpose is obscure. When humans write history, they are attempting to discover the ultimate meaning and purpose of it - why did what happen, happen… and how does what happen affect what happens now? History can be understood as much more than just mere facts and dates.

It’s one thing to know a specific historical event, it's another thing to know the significance and meaning of a historical event. Because of this, the philosophical question of history may be asked: what is the purpose of the significance and meaning of history? The pursuit of this question is the philosophy of history. As said by D’Souza, it is the pursuit “of history that grants intelligibility and meaning to history, beyond a mundane record of facts, dates, and names.[2]” To pursue history, in other words, is to pursue meaning and purpose.

            There are many approaches to the philosophy of history because there are many human minds attempting to understand the significance of history. In some ways, these approaches to the understanding of history are worlds apart from one another. For instance, in the current postmodern climate, history is understood as having “no ultimate or fixed reality, there are no transcendental truths, there is no authoritative projection into the future, not an objective history from which to derive it.[3]” In other words, the significance of history is that there is no significance to history. According to this approach, since there is no such thing as a transcendental, universal, objective truth then there can be no basis on which to judge history off of. Everything that happens just merely happens, chaos reigns. There is an alternative to this hopeless approach, though. As Christians we believe that there this is a universal standard, and so therefore we have a vastly different approach to the question. Built upon the works of philosophical saints of the past two-thousand years, we believe that history has a fixed reality, truth, and purpose because God, our creator, creates with purpose. We believe that “Christ is the center of history, that He gives it meaning, that He is forever working within it.[4]” The universe is not pure chaos, it is purposeful. It was created by a God who gave purpose to it, and it is continually maintained by a God who upholds its purpose as history does play out.

This philosophy of history is a jewel that the Church possesses, for it is a fountain of unceasing joy, peace, and hope. We do not have to live in the absolute despair that others do, nor do we have to live in absolute ignorance either. For the Christian, we look towards God for the purpose of history. However, this realization that we have of history did not just come to us overnight. The Christian philosophy of history is a product of centuries of philosophical work. We have many to thank for the development of this Christian philosophy of history, but the person who we owe thanks to the most is Augustine. It was Augustine who developed a comprehensive Christian understanding of the philosophy of history. At a time in his life when all seemed as if chaos reigned, Augustine chose to pursue truth. At a time when it seemed as if God had let His grip go on the history of creation, Augustine stood firm in his belief that God was forever in control of whatever shall come to pass. In this essay we will delve into this issue more, examining the philosophical conclusions of Augustine, and how such conclusions are relevant for us all today.

---

Historical Context

            Augustine’s philosophy of history is largely presented to us in his wonderful work, “The City of God”. On August 24th, 410 the defenses of the “eternal city” of Rome were overran allowing for the city to be ransacked and looted by the Vandals. Pure chaos was unleashed, and an empire that thought that it wielded power over history was brought to its knees in absolute humility. Being the birthplace and heart of the Roman Empire, this event sent shockwaves throughout the entire Mediterranean world. As with every devastating event, once the dust settled people were asking “why”. Quickly, accusations began accumulating against Christians for turning the nation away from its original gods and thus incurring such devastating judgment. As a defender of the faith, Augustine aimed to offer a philosophical and theological defense for why Christianity was not to blame. Augustine’s defense would ultimately find itself expressed in a philosophy of history which “saw the impermanence in all human institutions[5].” Augustine’s goal in his endeavor was to present the argumentation that history was not to be understood by a pagan-based karma ideology, but rather that history ought to be understood as the outworking of the purposes of the Lord, sometimes knowable and sometimes unknowable.

---

Augustine’s Position

History Is Divided

            To begin an understanding of Augustine’s philosophy of history, one must first know that Augustine understood history as being divided. To Augustine, for history to be divided does not mean that the idea of history itself is parted in some unexplainable way. Rather, what Augustine means is that history is divided into two participants. Augustine describes these two participants in history as “those according to the flesh, and others according to the spirit” who are of “two diverse and conflicting cities[7]”.  Here, it is being described by Augustine that the two participants of history are those of the spirit and those of the flesh. In other words, taking biblical language into consideration, the two participants of history are the people of God and the people of the world. History, to Augustine, is participatory. History encompasses the participation of all, even the fool can participate in history. 

History is the outworking and participation of two types: the good and the wicked. Certainly, since Genesis, this is an understandable concept. The book of Genesis, outlining the creation account of time and space, does make explicit reference to this historical split. Before the Fall, history was described as only consisting of one participant: God’s people. After the Fall, though, we see early on that the rest of history experiences a split in participants stemming from the line of Cain and the line of Seth. As Augustine himself said, “From that man (Adam) were to come all men, some of them to join the company of the evil angels in their punishment, others to be admitted to the company of the good angels in their reward.[8]” One thing to notice about this split, which I believe Augustine intended in his portrayal of history, is that history is only split between two parties. Augustine seems intentional in ensuring that a proper understanding of the division of history is that this division is a corporate division and not an individualistic one. History is not divided infinitely, accounting for each individual. Rather history is divided corporately, or as Augustine puts it, by “city”. There is a split between the good and the evil, which encompasses the whole.

            While discussing Augustine’s understanding of this division of history, it is also important to note what Augustine understood as being the ultimate factor of distinguishment. Greggersen notes that Augustine understood love as being deeply related to history[9]. Love, to Augustine, seems to be the dividing wedge of the two cities. As Augustine put it:

Accordingly, two cities have been formed by two loves: the earthly by the love of self, even to the contempt of God; the heavenly by the love of God, even to the contempt of self. The former, in a word, glories in itself, the latter in the Lord. For the one seeks glory from men; but the greatest glory of the other is God, the witness of conscience.[10]

Thus, the division within history is rooted in love. Whichever city a person belongs to in history is decided upon their love. Whatever a person loves that they will head towards. If a person loves those things which God hates, then he will find himself within the confines of the city of destruction. If a person loves those things which God loves, then he will find himself within the confines of the city of everlasting life. The two cities are distinguishable because they are both heading in different directions towards their different loves. One city is heading towards destruction, the other towards life. This specific distinction will be discussed more in depth later.

God is Sovereign Over History

            Although Augustine understood history as being a division between two cities, He did not understand history as being divided in ownership. According to Augustine, carnal history and holy history, though separated by participants, do not belong to different entities[11]. Both cities of history belong to one creator because “the whole of history is running from one spool.[12]” There is only one creation which God has made. As Augustine put it, “All bodies are subject above all to the will of God, and to him all wills also are subject, because the only power they have is the power that God allows them[13].” These two cities may make a division within history, but they do not create a divided history. History encompasses all, for it is attached to all of creation.

Augustine rightly understood the ontological difference between God and creation, and the implications that such had regarding history. Because God is creator over history, “we must ascribe to the true God alone the power to grant kingdoms and empires.[14]” In other words, God is the one sovereign over the rise and direction of both cities. Barnes does an excellent job in summarizing Augustine’s understanding of God’s sovereignty over history when he summarizes that “because God is the creator of the world, all history flows from God. It is not that sacred history belongs to him while profane history does not.[15]” History is of creation, and therefore is subject to Him who is the sole ruler over all of creation.

History is not Fatalistic

            However, though God is recognized as being sovereign over history, Augustine does not want to imply that such sovereignty culminates in the fatalism which was common to the pagans and the pseudo-Christian determinists[16]. Humans are participatory agents in history, though only within the confounds of God’s providence. This point is stressed in Augustine’s understanding of love being the driving wedge of history. It is the act of loving which determines which city a person may belong to. It is the human choice of love which God has decreed as His means of orchestrating history. To Augustine, humans are not mere, dead puppets. We are the characters of the story, each individual participating and purposefully playing a role in the story. God is the story-teller, and humans are the characters. We live-out the story, and we act accordingly within it, based upon love.

History is Teleological

            As mentioned earlier, the two cities are distinguishable because they are both heading in different directions. One city is heading to the “culmination of God’s blessings, and the other to eternal condemnation.[17]” This is Augustine’s understanding of the teleological aspect of time. Augustine recognized that God created purposefully. There is, with God, an “acts in accordance with an order of things and times[18].” The two cities are heading towards an end, and thus history is heading towards a consummated end. The goal of history is the heavenly city. As Augustine speaks about history and its trajectory, he speaks with a glimmer of hope for those within the city of God. The earthly city may someday come to an end, such as Rome did, but the city of God will not. It is rather heading towards a consummated end, where its inhabitants will forever dwell in the presence of God.

---

Significance of Issue for Christian Doctrine and Practice

            To say that Augustine had a monumental impact on the philosophy of history is no understatement. His proposed philosophy had implications that shook both the pagans and the Christians. However, for our purposes, we will conclude by discussing the significance Augustine’s philosophy had for Christians.

            Firstly, he provided a radically new outlook on history. Augustine offered the historical outlook that history is interconnected and participatory.[20] History is interconnected in that all of it relates to the sole purposes and decrees of God its creator. There is no part of history that is separated from the other parts, for the story of the two cities is a singular story. The secular city and the holy city are not separated, they are close and intertwined with one another in their interactions throughout the story of history. And it is through the interactions of the two cities that history is participatory. The citizens of both cities participate in the singular story of history. The citizens are the ones that live and do as the story unfolds, they are the ones who love and determine which city they belong to. The characters of the story may not be as important as the storyteller, but they are nevertheless important because without them there would be no story.

            Secondly, he displayed to the Christian world that the understanding of history is a theological pursuit. To understand God is to understand history, and to understand history is to understand God. We understand history by understanding God in that by knowing its creator we know its purpose and direction. History is more than just mere records and factoids because what has happened throughout history has happened by divine purpose. We understand God by understanding history in that by knowing the creation, we come to know more of the creator. History is the outplaying of God’s desire for His creation. As He leads history to its consummated end, He has made Himself known more and more.

            Thirdly, he brought forth a joyful understanding of history. The pagan philosophies and cults painted history as being cold, impersonal, and dreadful. Many of these pagan ideals of history would implore its adherents to eat and drink today, for tomorrow we die. Augustine, however, introduced redemption as a way of understanding history. Augustine portrayed the “dimensions of human history as (being) created, redeemed, and perfected.[21]” God is working through history to bring about His ultimate plans of redemption. For the people of God, there is a hope to be had. Just as the first six days of creation worked their way up to the seventh day of Sabbath rest; so is it that history is working its way up to the consummated Sabbath rest.

Although history, at the moment, is hard to understand, there will come a day when we may more fully understand it. There is coming a day when the two cities will be separated from one another, and the new creation be ushered in. History will reach its consummated end, its purpose arrived at. Until that point, though, the story is unfolding. And even though some parts of the story may be hard to understand, once the story is completed all the pieces of the puzzle will come together. 

[1] Attributed to the Irish poet and playwright, Oscar Wilde.

[2] Mario D’Souza, “Something Rather Than Nothing: Human Living and the Christian Philosophy of History,” The Heythrop Journal 57, no. 3 (May 2016): 590.

[3] M.C. Lemon, Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 360.

[4] Paul Henry, “The Christian Philosophy of History,” Theological Studies 13, no.1 (September 1952): 432.

[5] Peter Barnes, “Augustine’s View of History in His City of God,” The Reformed Theological Review 71, no.2 (August 2012): 92.

[6] Gabriele Greggersen, “Between Heaven and Earth: Augustine’s Synthesis of Theology and History,” Fides et Historia 37, no.1 (Wint-Spr 2005): 89.

[7] Augustine, 10.32.

[8] Augustine, 12.28.

[9] Gabriele Greggersen, “Between Heaven and Earth: Augustine’s Synthesis of Theology and History,” Fides et Historia 37, no.1 (Wint-Spr 2005): 84.

[10] Augustine, 14.4.

[11] Peter Barnes, “Augustine’s View of History in His City of God,” The Reformed Theological Review 71, no.2 (August 2012): 102.

[12] Rudiger Bittner, “Augustine’s Philosophy of History,” In The Augustine Tradition, ed. Gareth Matthews (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999), 347.

[13] Augustine, 5.9.

[14] Augustine, 5.21.

[15] Peter Barnes, “Augustine’s View of History in His City of God,” The Reformed Theological Review 71, no.2 (August 2012): 102.

[16] Gabriele Greggersen, “Between Heaven and Earth: Augustine’s Synthesis of Theology and History,” Fides et Historia 37, no.1 (Wint-Spr 2005): 87.

[17] John Frame, A History of Western Philosophy and Theology (Phillipsburg: P&R Publishing, 2015), 116.

[18] Augustine, 4.33.

[19] G.J.P. O’Daly, “Thinking Through History: Augustine’s Method in the City of God and Its Ciceronian Dimension,” Augustinian Studies 30, no.2 (1999): 54.

[20] Matthew Levering, “Linear and Participatory History: Augustine’s City of God,” Journal of Theological Interpretation 5, no.2 (Fall 2011): 175.

[21] Matthew Levering, “Linear and Participatory History: Augustine’s City of God,” Journal of Theological Interpretation 5, no.2 (Fall 2011): 195.